Resources #
Category: Watershed 101
Governmental Assistance #
Some general links containing water monitoring information on methods and the meaning of the results:
Pennsylvania Senior Environment Corps (PaSEC)
, Pennsylvania Seniors leading the charge with statewide volunteer water monitoring. http://www.dep.state.pa.us/hosting/pasec/
Monitoring water quality from EPA’s Office of Wetlands, Oceans and Watersheds (OWOW) http://www.epa.gov/owow/monitoring/index.htm l
Biological indicators of watershed health from EPA http://www.epa.gov/bioindicators/
Standard procedures for water quality analysis http://www.mp.usbr.gov/geospat/olympiad/wqtests/testindex.htm l
Volunteer stream monitoring: A Methods Manual http://www.epa.gov/owow/monitoring/volunteer/stream/index.htm l
Another very valuable resource is a manual for the Citizens Volunteer Monitoring Handbook produced by PA DEP. A hard copy of this manual is also available free of charge from DEP by contacting Diane Wilson at (717) 787-3730 or [email protected] (mailto:[email protected]) http://www.dep.state.pa.us/dep/deputate/watermgt/wc/subjects/cvmp/cvmp_hdbook.htm
Delaware Riverkeeper Network’s Volunteer Monitoring Program has a variety of tools on their website useful in monitoring the health of streams and rivers. http://www.delawareriverkeeper.org/monitoring/monitoring.htm
Water quality
Water quality can be defined as the current status or condition of the water in a specific aquatic ecosystem. It is much easier to describe what poor water quality is than to describe what conditions are considered good water quality. Many of the lines between good and poor are stream-specific. Each watershed has some natural buffering capacity. This allows the water to adapt and compensate for normal changes in the environment such as leaching from the soil or the occasional heavy rain.
Water pollution
Pollution occurs when conditions exceed the watershed’s ability to compensate for the changes. Polluted water may be discolored, possess a coating on the bottom of the stream, or may show no visible sign at all of pollution. There are many different kinds of pollution. The two major categories are Point Source and Non-Point Source pollution.
Point Source Pollution #
Point source pollution comes from a defined, specific source such as a discharge pipe from a factory, municipal sewage treatment plant, or power generating station. The state “Clean Streams Law” as well as the federal Clean Water Act have made great strides towards identifying, controlling and cleaning up point source pollution. This category of pollution still has an effect on today’s watersheds, but not to the great extent as prior to legislation.
Non-Point Source Pollution #
Now that much of the point-source pollution is being controlled, problems are arising that were previously overshadowed. Non-point source pollution (NPS) is being recognized as a major factor in the deterioration of today’s watersheds. NPS pollution is covered by Section 319 of the Federal Clean Water Act. A significant federal and state bureaucracies have been built up around NPS and Section 319. It’s common to refer to programs or funding simply by using “319” as the qualifier.http://amrclearinghouse.org/Sub/LEGAL/Section319NPS.htm, http://amrclearinghouse.org/Sub/LEGAL/CleanWaterAct.htm
The most common types of non-point source pollution are: AMD, agriculture, erosion and sedimentation, and acid rain. AMD is by far the worst problem facing area watersheds. For more information on what AMD is see What is AMD?
Agriculture is a very serious source of NPS because there are so many kinds of pollution generated. The two most likely pollutants from agriculture are nutrients and sediments. Many of the pesticides and fertilizers used today have a tendency to be washed off of plants and filter into waterways through runoff, increasing nutrient loads. Nutrient and sediment levels increase when unprotected streams run through livestock pastures. Cattle are often the worst of all livestock offenders. They trample the streams sides, increasing erosion and sedimentation. Evidence of nutrient pollution is often seen as algal blooms. These are large pockets of algae that make the water appear almost a soupy green.Blooms have devastating consequences for aquatic organisms. As the algae flourishes on the increase of nutrients (especially nitrogen), the amount of oxygen in the water rapidly decreases to nearly 0. This leaves the water uninhabitable and results in widespread kills of fish and other organisms that are in the bloom path.
Erosion and sedimentation are also very common pollutants. Often excess amounts of solids enter waterways because of run-off. Constructions sites, fallow fields, and other areas of unprotected soil are extremely prone to large amounts of erosion. Poor forest management practices, such as clear cutting a hillside can also result in increased erosion. One methods of decreasing erosion and sedimentation is with the protection and establishment of riparian buffers.
http://amrclearinghouse.org/Sub/WATERSHEDbasics/Riparian_buffers.htm
Acid rain or acid precipitation, is becoming a common pollution source. Car exhaust as well as other discharges spout compounds into the air. As clouds form and water vapor mixes with the gases, acids are formed. Sulfuric and nitric acids are the two most commonly found. When the clouds release the water as precipitation, these acids are carried down to earth and drain into unsuspecting waterways. There are times when a stream may appear to be suffering from AMD by the pH level, however no discharge can be found. Acid rain can have the same profound lowering effect on pH as AMD. It may also carry minerals and metals into the stream that the acidic pH leached out of surrounding rocks.
Storm water runoff is also a problem. Though it may not contain many pollutants, the unrestricted dumping of a large volume of water is detrimental in itself. The streams are accustomed to gradual flow into a waterway, not the forceful rush often associated with storm drains. The extra flow raises levels above the normal often causing flooding and erosion. The increased flow of water also impacts aquatic habitat, changing the character of the stream from a quiet pool to a rushing, tumbling surge. Many organisms will not inhabit such fast-moving water.
A Watershed Primer for Pennsylvania, produced by the PA Environmental Council, has many related essays detailing various kinds of pollution and treatment methods. http://www.pecpa.org/_final_pec/WatershedPrimer.pdf http://www.pecpa.org/
Water Quality WebQuest provides a good general resources on water quality and nutrient cycling. http://www.pburg.k12.nj.us/PHS/shorne/watqual.htm
The National Water-Quality Assessment Program provides details on various pollution types and water assessment methods. http://water.usgs.gov/nawqa/
The Water Quality Information Center provides a library of water quality information available for searching. http://www.nal.usda.gov/wqic/
PA’s Fish and Boat Commission provides a general over view on the Basics of Water Pollution in Pennsylvania. http://sites.state.pa.us/Fish/anglerboater/2001/jf2001/wpollbas.htm
CreekConnections, a project of Allegheny College, provides a variety of modules for learning about PA’s streams, rivers, and waters. https://sites.allegheny.edu/creek-connections (http://sites.allegheny.edu/creek-connections)/
https://sites.allegheny.edu/creek-connections (http://sites.allegheny.edu/creek-connections)/
Developing a monitoring plan
Decide who will monitor the water
Once you have decided to monitor a stream, watershed, or other aquatic body, it is important to determine exactly who will be doing the monitoring. Will you hire professionals or ask for volunteers? Volunteer monitoring has many advantages, it is educational, economical and a valuable source of help. Professional monitoring is often still necessary even if volunteer monitoring is used. However, volunteer monitoring can provide:
data for remote areas
data more frequently than routine monitoring
an understanding and awareness in watershed residents
documentation of important plants and animals observed by volunteers
Define the scale
It is very important to define the size of the watershed that you want to monitor. Make sure to choose something large enough to make a difference, but small enough to be manageable. Consider the amount of time and money available to the monitoring project. It will be needed to buy supplies, pay professionals and manage the monitoring.
Set Goals #
Find out the background on the area you want to monitor. Is there any data already available? Are there water quality standards in place? Are they being met? What are the uses, values and threats in your watershed? What are your watershed management goals? Are there any questions to answer through monitoring?
Determine the indicators to monitor
Indicators are measurable features that can provide insight into current conditions and trends. The major categories are: Chemical, Physical, and Biological. Further information on each of these categories is available by following the links. It is also a good idea to track land use and known pollution sources. Some commonly monitored indicators are pH, dissolved oxygen, temperature, water color, and flow rate.
Determine data quality objectives
This is very important if many people will be involved in data collection. Be sure to establish data quality objectives (DQOs). This ensures that data will be consistent and useful for end collection and analysis. Important DQO considerations are:
Completeness: How many samples should be taken?
Representativeness: Do your sample results represent the conditions in which you were monitoring?
Precision: How close should repeated measurement values b?
Accuracy: How close should measurements be to the “standard”? (A standard is use to calibrate any instruments.)
Sensitivity: What is the minimum level of an indicator you must detect?
Decide on methods
Once you have established which indicators to monitor and DQOs, you can select the methods for sampling and analyzing the indicators. The methods you choose are linked to the indicators that you would like to monitor. Physical monitoring can be done through visual surveys or field measurements. These methods are good for recording indicators such as bank erosion, habitat characteristics, sedimentation, water color and flow rate.
Chemical monitoring can also be done two ways. The method of testing is usually dependent upon the indicator chosen. Commonly tested indicators, such as pH and dissolved oxygen can be done as field measurements. It is possible to purchase electronic testing equipment designed for field use that allows these measurements to be done quickly and easily. Other indicators may also be tested, however these tests often require water sampling and analysis. In these tests, water samples are retrieved and sent to a lab for analysis.
Biological monitoring is often a combination of field and lab work. Samples may be collected in the field and analyzed there or taken back to a lab for identification and classification. Macro invertebrate surveys, or biotic indexes, are commonly used to comment on water quality. Many methods are available for this testing. Often the most accurate results are obtained from employing a variety of sampling methods.
When selecting methods, be sure to indicate in you DQOs how many replicates to obtain as well as any special procedures to be followed in obtaining samples.
Determine monitoring sites
Where monitoring sites are placed is based on the kind of picture you would like to obtain of the watershed. Placing sites equally spaced between the headwaters and the mouth of your stream can reveal a baseline picture, however, closely spaced monitoring sites upstream and downstream of a certain site can be used to determine the extent of human impact.
Some suggestions to follow when choosing monitoring sites:
· Using the previously drawn topographical map of the watershed, determine which sites would be the most beneficial.
·Field-check each site for accessibility and safety. Avoid slippery and eroding banks.
·Obtain land-owner permission for sampling. Avoid sites where permission can’t be obtained.
· Photograph each site. This is helpful for identification if multiple volunteer groups will be monitoring the site as well as providing before and after pictures for rehabilitation operations.
·Map each site
·Make a list of selected sites including the rationale for choosing them
Decide when to monitor
Determine how frequently monitoring must be conducted. Baseline information is best obtained by sampling regularly while human impact is often most noticeable before and after storm events. It is best to remain consistent with sampling times during the day as some indicator levels, such as dissolved oxygen fluctuate through the day. Macro invertebrates are often most plentiful in the spring and the fall. Be aware of the type of watershed profile that needs to be obtained and tailor the monitoring program to fit the need.
Documentation!!
Most importantly!!! Do not forget to document your monitoring plan! Keep clear, concise records detailing the monitoring plan for the watershed, including the indicators, methods and analysis used. It is also important to have clear records of the monitoring results from data collection. Overtime, the data can be compared to the goals originally outlined by the monitoring plan. Clear documentation will allow you to compare the progress of the monitoring plan and revise the goals and/or methods if needed. Documentation is also a good resource for public outreach, providing solid evidence and support to rehabilitation programs.
For more information on developing and implementing a monitoring plan obtain Designing Your Monitoring Program: A Technical Handbook for Community-Based Monitoring in Pennsylvania prepared by River Network and PA DEP Bureau of Watershed Management, Citizen’s Volunteer Monitoring Program.
Tools #
Before conducting a monitoring session, be sure to collect all of the tools you will need.
General tools you need for a monitoring session include: pencils, pens, clipboards, data collection forms, and a camera. Be sure to have all participants dressed accordingly to the weather and stream environment: old clothes and shoes should be worn. Hip boots may also be used.
Physical monitoring requires it’s own set of tools. Which tools are needed depends upon which factors are going to be measured. A good list of items for a physical data collection includes: tape measure (50 to 100 ft depending on the stream), meter stick, floating ball, and stopwatch.
Chemical monitoring tools are the test kits or meters for your chosen indicators. These can be obtained from the companies listed in the resource page. Be sure that the person(s) responsible for the chemical testing understand the equipment, and can use and interpret it correctly.
Biological monitoring tools are also determined by which kinds of collection methods will be used. Most collection methods (not including leaf packs) require: D-frame nets, basins, sample bags, gloves (optional for rock washing), and bug cards if onsite identification is going to be done.
For macro invertebrate collection: Be sure that the guidelines are followed for collecting this organisms. There are special fishing licenses available for monitoring groups. Be sure to obtain one that best suits your needs.
For information on obtaining and an application for a special monitoring license please view or download this pdf file from the PA Fish and Boat Commission.http://amrclearinghouse.org/Sub/WATERmonitoring/scicoll%20fishing%20lic.pdf
Resources #
Materials and Tools
The following companies host web sites or have catalogues available for use in ordering monitoring supplies. It is a good idea to begin with $500 to $1000 seed money to order supplies for monitoring. Financial assistance and funding is available to monitoring groups. http://amrclearinghouse.org/Sub/FINDINGassistance/FinancialAssistance.htm
Ben Meadows has a catalogue featuring physical monitoring tools. http://www.benmeadows.com/
HACH Company provides a catalogue of chemical water testing kits and supplies
Carolina Biological Supply has a good selection of monitoring kits that are especially useful if using volunteer monitoring with school students. http://www.carolina.com/
Forestry Supply provides a wide selection of outdoor gear and physical monitoring supplies. http://www.deakin.com/directory.cfm?CategoryID=81
Wildlife Supply Company (Wildco) carries a wide range of physical and biological monitoring equipment for purchase and use by various groups including volunteer monitoring organizations. http://www.wildco.com/
CHEMetrics has a free catalogue available providing easy to use chemical testing kits and equipment. https://www.chemetrics.com (http://www.chemetrics.com)/
Information #
Biological Surveys provides a general overview on biological monitoring as well as directions on various sample techniques. http://140.211.62.101/streamwatch/swm12.htm l
Handbook for Water Quality Analysis of Western Pennsylvania Waterways Prepared by: Chris Resek, Mark L. Lord, James O. Palmer: Creek Connections, 1999.
The EPA’s site on Bioassessment and biocriteria provides general information on biological water quality assessment and its uses. http://www.epa.gov/ost/biocriteria/index.htm l
Monitoring Water Quality from EPA’s Office of Wetlands, Oceans and Watersheds (OWOW) http://www.epa.gov/owow/monitoring/index.htm l
Biological indicators of watershed health from EPA http://www.epa.gov/bioindicators/
Standard Procedures for Water Quality Analysis http://www.mp.usbr.gov/geospat/olympiad/wqtests/testindex.htm l
Volunteer Stream Monitoring: A Methods Manual http://www.epa.gov/owow/monitoring/volunteer/stream/index.htm l
An introduction to the Aquatic Insects of North America. by R. M. Merritt and K. W. Cummins (1984) Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company
Aquatic Entomology by W. P. McCafferty(1981) Jones and Bartlett Publishing Company: Boston.
Freshwater Biomonitoring and Benthic Macroinvertebrates. by D. M. Rosenburg and V. H. Resh (1993) Chapman and Hall: New York.
amrclearinghouse.org/Sub/WATERmonitoring/Resources.htm1/2 (http://amrclearinghouse.org/Sub/WATERmonitoring/Resources.htm1/2) (http://amrclearinghouse.org/Sub/WATERmonitoring/Resources.htm1/2)
Fresh Water Invertebrates of the United States. by R.W. Pennak (1989) John Wiley and Sons, Inc: New York.
Rapid Bioassessment Protocols for Use in Streams and Rivers – Benthic Macroinvertebrates and Fish. US EPA
Field Manual for Water Quality Monitoring (4th Ed.) by M.K. Mitchell and W.B. Stapp (1990) Thomas-Shore, Inc: Dexter.
Macroinvertebrate Guides #
These web pages provide other guides to macroinvertebrate identification and pollution tolerance.
Kentucky State University has a page dedicated to explaining Biological and chemical monitoring methods, as well as an online guide to identifying aquatic insects. http://www.state.ky.us/nrepc/water/waterres.htm
THE STREAM STUDY is sponsored by the Save Our Streams Program of the Izaak Walton League. It provides information on macroinvertebrate identification and collection methods. http://www.people.virginia.edu/~sos-iwla/Stream-Study/StreamStudyHomePage/StreamStudy.HTML
Lackawanna River Corridor Association Macroinvertebrate Guide provides a quick overview of macroinvertebrate identification with color pictures. 404
Earth Force provides a Benthic Monitoring Guide with information on macro identification, collection and related links. http://www.green.org/files.cgi/234_Benthic_Monitoring_Guide.htm l
Education #
For education related resources on water monitoring, please visit the education page.
Sources/Links (as provided in the source text):
- http://www.dep.state.pa.us/hosting/pasec/
- http://www.epa.gov/owow/monitoring/index.htm
- http://www.epa.gov/bioindicators/
- http://www.mp.usbr.gov/geospat/olympiad/wqtests/testindex.htm
- http://www.epa.gov/owow/monitoring/volunteer/stream/index.htm
- mailto:[email protected]
- http://www.dep.state.pa.us/dep/deputate/watermgt/wc/subjects/cvmp/cvmp_hdbook.htm
- http://www.delawareriverkeeper.org/monitoring/monitoring.htm
- http://amrclearinghouse.org/Sub/LEGAL/Section319NPS.htm
- http://amrclearinghouse.org/Sub/LEGAL/CleanWaterAct.htm
- http://amrclearinghouse.org/Sub/WATERSHEDbasics/Riparian_buffers.htm
- http://www.pecpa.org/_final_pec/WatershedPrimer.pdf
- http://www.pecpa.org/
- http://www.pburg.k12.nj.us/PHS/shorne/watqual.htm
- http://water.usgs.gov/nawqa/
- http://www.nal.usda.gov/wqic/
- http://sites.state.pa.us/Fish/anglerboater/2001/jf2001/wpollbas.htm
- https://sites.allegheny.edu/creek-connections
- http://sites.allegheny.edu/creek-connections
- http://amrclearinghouse.org/Sub/WATERmonitoring/scicoll%20fishing%20lic.pdf
- http://amrclearinghouse.org/Sub/FINDINGassistance/FinancialAssistance.htm
- http://www.benmeadows.com/
- http://www.carolina.com/
- http://www.deakin.com/directory.cfm?CategoryID=81
- http://www.wildco.com/
- https://www.chemetrics.com
- http://www.chemetrics.com
- http://140.211.62.101/streamwatch/swm12.htm
- http://www.epa.gov/ost/biocriteria/index.htm
- http://amrclearinghouse.org/Sub/WATERmonitoring/Resources.htm1/2
- http://www.state.ky.us/nrepc/water/waterres.htm
- http://www.people.virginia.edu/~sos-iwla/Stream-Study/StreamStudyHomePage/StreamStudy.HTML
- http://www.green.org/files.cgi/234_Benthic_Monitoring_Guide.htm
